Hermeneutics

Hermeneutics began as a set of rules for reading a difficult text responsibly, and for most of its history that text was scripture. Medieval interpreters worked with a fourfold method that read a passage for its literal, allegorical, moral and anagogical sense at once, a method the discipline of exegesis still studies as its own inherited toolkit. The Reformation narrowed that inheritance rather than abandoning it. Martin Luther argued for a plain, grammatical and historical sense of the text as the check against readings driven by church authority rather than the text itself, and the principle that scripture interprets scripture became a working rule rather than a slogan.

The decisive widening came later and outside biblical study altogether. Friedrich Schleiermacher, working in the early nineteenth century, argued that the same interpretive problem, how a reader ever correctly grasps what another mind meant, applies to any text and any utterance, not scripture alone. Wilhelm Dilthey extended that claim into a general theory of how the human sciences understand meaningful expression at all, and Hans Georg Gadamer later reframed the whole tradition around the idea that a reader's own historical situation is not an obstacle to understanding a text but the very condition that makes understanding possible. What began as a discipline for settling what a passage of scripture means became, by that route, a general theory of what it is to understand anything a person has said or written.